Keerthana Visveish - STEM Principles in Ancient Bharat

Project by: Keerthana Visveish

Mentor: Sri Swarun Kumar

Introduction

When we think of STEM—Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics—we often picture high-tech labs, futuristic machines, or space exploration. But long before these fields had modern labels, the foundations of STEM were already deeply embedded in the fabric of ancient Indian civilization. In intricate temples carved from mountains, in verses from the ancient Vedas, and in descriptions like that of the Pushpaka Vimana, ancient Bharat showcased a remarkable understanding of the natural world, mechanics, mathematics, and more.

STEM principles were not only understood, but mastered by ancient Indian scholars, artisans, and philosophers over thousands of years ago. From the meticulous astronomical observations of Aryabhata and Yajnavalkya to the engineering marvels of temples and irrigation systems, the intellectual heritage of Bharat continues to inspire. These innovations were not just practical but were often intertwined with spiritual and philosophical thinking, following sacred practices that we still find today.

Science in Ancient Bharat

Science, at its core, is about understanding the world around us. Ancient Indian sages and astronomers sought to do just that, and their contributions to astronomy and cosmology reveal just how advanced their understanding was.

The Rig Veda, one of the oldest known texts, reveals that Vedic people divided the year into 360 days, and the year was subdivided into 12 months of 30 days. The Veda also showed that people oriented their altars using the four cardinal directions. These observations required a deep understanding of the Earth’s movement and solar cycles. This level of precision in tracking time and space shows an early scientific mindset.

One of the most remarkable scientific texts is the Shatapatha Brahmana, where the sage Yajnavalkya proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system. He stated that the sun is the center and the Earth revolves around it, a model that predates the Polish astronomer, Copernicus, by over a millennium. He also estimated the distances between the Earth and the Sun and the Moon as 108 times the diameters of each body—astonishingly close to today’s measurements.

The Siddhantic Era marked a significant period in Indian astronomy. Texts such as the Surya Siddhanta outlined the movements of planets, lunar phases, and eclipses with remarkable accuracy. Indian astronomers, including Aryabhata in the 5th century CE, took a mathematical approach to science. Aryabhata not only proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis but also correctly explained that lunar eclipses are caused by Earth’s shadow—a concept later adopted by Renaissance scientists in Europe.

These scholars challenged and surpassed contemporary Western ideas. While Greek astronomers still believed in celestial spheres, Indian scientists had begun thinking in terms of vast space and physical laws. This early scientific tradition of questioning, calculating, and recording not only laid the foundation for astronomy but helped develop a culture of inquiry that resonates with modern STEM ideals.

By the first century CE, Indian astronomers proposed that the stars were exactly like the sun, but much further away. They proved these theories at a time when the Greeks were still using celestial crystal spheres to explain the cosmos. They also understood that the earth was spherical, and Indian astronomers attempted to calculate the circumference of the planet.

Ancient India was also a pioneer in the field of medicine. The Atharva Veda mentions herbs and treatments, while the Sushruta Samhita, written by the legendary physician Sushruta, details surgical techniques—centuries before similar practices became common elsewhere. The Charaka Samhita, another foundational text, described the importance of digestion, immunity, and mental health in disease prevention, ideas that are only now being recognized in modern medicine. Ayurveda, or the “science of life,” emphasized balance in body, mind, and environment, offering a holistic model of health care rooted in observation and logic.

Technology in Ancient Bharat

While science in ancient Bharat explained the universe, technology was the art of applying this knowledge for practical use. Stories from the Ramayana, one of our Ithihasas, illustrate a hint at a deeper technological imagination. One striking example is the Pushpaka Vimana—a flying chariot described in vivid detail by sage Valmiki. Verses from the Valmiki Ramayana describe the Pushpaka Vimana in great detail, admiring its aerial capabilities – many of which mirror engineering techniques that are used today.

In the 8th chapter in Sundara Kanda, Valmiki describes the Pushpaka Vimana: “That plane shone like a symbol for the solar path standing in the aerial path obtaining the sky. Manufactured by Vishvakarma himself and praised by him as one without comparison in beauty.” “One that has been obtained by austerities and by prowess, one that moves about by thoughts of concentrated mind, made from various significant parts with an appearance of parts of equal significance, collected from here and there from all over the world.”

Vishvakarma, a great architect, was known for his advanced engineering and magnificent structures, including the Pushpaka Vimana. As mentioned in the 8th chapter of Sundara Kanda, it was an ‘aerial device’ that moved using thoughts of a concentrated mind, alluding towards modern-day concepts such as aerodynamics and autonomy. In addition, it was made from ‘various significant parts’ which is the basis of material processing and design.

Technology in Bharat wasn’t just about flight. It was also about water—its harvesting, storage, and use. The ancient Indians perfected water management systems that would be considered advanced even by today’s standards. Irrigation is mentioned in the Rig Veda and was refined over centuries.

The earliest mentions of irrigation are found in Rig Veda chapters. The Veda mentions irrigation methods using wells. Later, the 4th-century BCE Indian scholar Pāṇini, mentions tapping several rivers such as Sindhu, Suvastu, Varnu, Sarayu, Vipas and Chandrabhaga for irrigation. Patanjali, in Yogasutra of about the 4th century CE, explains a technique of yoga by comparing it to “the way a farmer diverts a stream from a canal for irrigation”. In Tamil Nadu, the Grand Anaicuttu canal across the Kaveri river was implemented in the 3rd century CE, and the basic design is still used widely today.

In the following shloka in the Valmiki Ramayana, Valmiki refers to the water cycle, displaying his knowledge during such an ancient time period, seven thousand years ago. In the story, Rama is waiting to travel to Lanka during a heavy rainy season:

नव मास धृतम् गर्भम् भास्कारस्य गभस्तिभिः |

पीत्वा रसम् समुद्राणाम् द्यौः प्रसूते रसायनम् || ३-२८-३

The atmosphere bears the pregnancy of rainwater drawing through the sunrays, keeping that essence in air consolidating them to become watery clouds for a nine-month period from the month of kartika to aaSaaDha. That is roughly from November to July. Then it delivers rainwater, the elixir of life, in the month of shravaNa. It is an extract of six rasa-s elixirs, for the utilisation of various crops.

This shloka from Kishkinda Kanda demonstrates how important the rains were to agriculture at the time. Valmiki draws parallels between the value of the rain to a new life being created on Earth, such as plants or trees.

The simplest techniques of water harvesting include harvesting from the raindrops directly. From rooftops, people used to collect water and store it in tanks built in their courtyards and artificial wells. They harvested monsoon runoff by capturing water from swollen streams during the monsoon season and stored it in various forms of water bodies. There were several great water tanks that came up during the Chola period. Rajendra Chola built a huge tank named Solagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was described as the ‘liquid pillar of victory’. It was about 16 miles long, and was provided with canals for irrigating the lands in the neighbouring areas.

Ancient Indian metallurgy was another high point of technology. The Iron Pillar of Delhi, dating back to the Gupta period, stands over 1,600 years without significant rust—a testament to advanced metallurgical understanding. Ancient Indians developed techniques to create high-carbon steel, known as Wootz steel, which was exported across the world and admired for its strength and flexibility.

These practices demonstrate how technology in ancient India was deeply sustainable, community-based, and harmonized with nature—a lesson that modern societies are beginning to rediscover.

Engineering in Ancient Bharat

Many modern engineering principles have roots in ancient Bharat. Rock-cut temples and massive architectural structures were built long before modern technology. So, how did they achieve this over 4,000 years ago?

Ancient Bharat’s engineering marvels were not limited to water systems. Some of the world’s most enduring architectural achievements—temples carved into hillsides, towering stone gopurams, and acoustically perfect mandapas—were constructed using sophisticated engineering methods.

The Shilpa Shastras, a collection of texts dealing with architecture and sculpture, laid down rigorous rules for temple construction. These rules included proportions, layout, symmetry, and alignment with celestial bodies. Temples were aligned with the sun’s path, optimizing natural light and airflow—an early form of environmental engineering.

Vastu Shastra, another ancient discipline, detailed the optimal layout of buildings to ensure harmony with natural forces. Modern principles of urban planning and civil engineering—orientation, ventilation, spatial organization—can trace roots back to these teachings.

The materials used—granite, sandstone, limestone—were chosen for durability and local availability. The temples at Ellora and Mahabalipuram, carved directly out of rock, show the engineering prowess of ancient craftsmen who worked with minimal tools yet achieved millimeter precision.

One of the most overlooked yet fascinating aspects of Indian temples is their acoustics. The Sabha Mandapams were constructed with specific proportions, reflective surfaces, and strategically placed columns to enhance sound. Bells, chants, and instruments reverberated in these halls with clarity—an example of how sound engineering was used to deepen spiritual experience.

Stepwells such as the Rani ki Vav in Gujarat combined architecture and engineering in beautiful, functional harmony. Designed to store water, these wells were also aesthetic and spiritual spaces, showing how form and function were unified.

From hydraulic systems to structural dynamics, ancient Indian engineers showcased a fusion of science, aesthetics, and spirituality. These timeless structures stand as monuments to engineering that was both visionary and deeply rooted in tradition.

Mathematics in Ancient Bharat

Mathematics was perhaps the most advanced of all STEM fields in ancient India. Far from being limited to counting or measuring, ancient Indian mathematics explored geometry, algebra, and even calculus concepts long before their development in Europe.

The first reference of Pi in Indian history is from the Yajur Veda. The Kalpa Vedanga is written on the study of rituals. One such ritual is the “Threthagni Yagna” where the altar consists of 3 geometrical shapes – a square (Ahavaniyagni), a semi-circle (Dakshinagni), and a circle (Grihapatyagni). The Vedanga mandates that all 3 shapes must be of the same exact area. In ancient Bharat at the time, the only tools available to do such geometrical calculations were ropes and nails. The Kalpa Sutra recorded several complex algorithms to calculate and equate the areas of the 3 yagnis.

(Threthagni Yagna during Amarnath Inauguration)

In the Katyayana Sulba Sutrani 3.14, it states “A rope when stretched across the circle, also goes 3 times around the circle”: 

Pi = circumference/diameter = 3.0

The second reference of Pi is from the renowned mathematician, Aryabhatiya in the 6th Century CE. Recorded in the 10th slokam of the Ganita Pada, he states “100 added 4, multiplied by 8 and added 62,000, this is the circumference of a circle whose diameter is 20,000”: 

Pi = 62,832/20,000 = 3.1416

This was in the 6th century CE—about a thousand years before European mathematicians would reach similar precision. Later, in the 14th century CE, Madhava of Sangamagrama developed an infinite series to calculate Pi even more accurately—essentially laying the groundwork for calculus.

Stated in the Mahajyanayana Prakara, Madhavan wrote that the value of Pi could be achieved using the formula: 

Brahmagupta introduced rules for zero and negative numbers in the 7th century CE. He provided the first systematic treatment of quadratic equations, arithmetic progressions, and even concepts of infinity. These ideas would later influence Islamic and European mathematicians.

These discoveries were not just theoretical. They were used in astronomy, engineering, and religious rituals, proving that mathematics in ancient India was a living, evolving field with wide-ranging applications.

Conclusion

From the stars above to the temples below, from flying chariots to intricate calculations of Pi, ancient Bharat’s legacy in STEM is nothing short of extraordinary. The thinkers, engineers, and artisans of the past were not just spiritual philosophers but rigorous scientists and problem-solvers.

In today’s world, where STEM shapes every aspect of our lives, looking back at our cultural roots offers inspiration and pride. These ancient contributions remind us that innovation is timeless and that the pursuit of knowledge has always been part of Indian civilization.

Link to Final Presentation File